Single nucleotide polymorphisms and community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

ABSTRACT

The present invention is based on the discovery of novel polymorphisms (SNPs) in the penicillin binding protein (pbp3) gene in  Staphylococcus aureus . The presence of G88A and/or G2047A SNPs provides an accurate, reliable biomarker for the presence of Methicillin Resistant  Staphylococcus aureus  (MRSA), specifically the community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). The present invention provides reagents used for detecting the SNPs as well as methods of identifying and using these variants to screen subjects for presence of CA-MRSA. The methods involve isolating a biological sample from a mammal (preferably a human) and testing for the presence of a SNP in the pbp3 gene which is associated with CA-MRSA.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/649,969, filed on Jul. 14, 2017, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,221,462, issued Mar. 5, 2019, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/068,331, filed on May 9, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,738,938, issued Aug. 22, 2017, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/395,130 filed May 7, 2010, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention generally relates to the field of diagnosis of infection with a gram-positive bacterium in a mammal. The present invention specifically provides previously unrecognized single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) present in the Staphylococcus aureus genome identified as being involved in bacteriology associated with a human disease. The disclosed naturally-occurring polymorphisms are valuable for association analysis. Specifically, the identified SNPs present in penicillin binding protein 3 (pbp3) are useful for such applications as screening for the presence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), particularly community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). The SNPs provided herein are useful for diagnostic detection in human CA-MRSA infection. Methods and reagents for detecting the presence of these polymorphisms are provided.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Since the first report of a clinical strain in England in 1961, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become one of the principal pathogenic bacteria of nosocomial infection. It poses a major healthcare concern due to the high morbidity and mortality in patients associated with hospital and community acquired infections. MRSA bacterium is a variant of Staphylococcus aureus that has acquired drug resistance to β-lactam antibiotics such as methicillin, oxacillin, and ampicillin by the integration of a transposon known as Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome (SCC). Antibiotic resistance is reported to be associated with the acquisition of penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a) by Staphylococcus aureus. PBP2a purportedly has a lower affinity to β-lactam antibiotics. In 2009, Contreras-Martel et al. described single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in a Streptococcus pneumoniae penicillin binding protein (pbp) gene ultimately leading to decreased susceptibility to beta-lactam antibiotics. This is different from what is normally seen in Staphylococcus aureus, in which PBP2a is an alternate penicillin binding protein acquired form the environment that exhibits lower beta-lactam binding affinity.

There are four (4) predominant SCC types of MRSA; namely, type I, type II, type III and type IV MRSA. Types I-III are hospital-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA) and type IV is community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). CA-MRSA is associated with the Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) toxin and represents a highly virulent type of MRSA. Risk of Staphylococcus aureus infection is high for patients who have opened wounds or weakened immune systems staying in hospitals and nursing homes, as well as for other healthcare facilities. Once an individual is infected with MRSA, the choice of effective antibiotics is limited. These include alternate antibiotics (e.g., vancomycin and teicoplanin and linezolid). Therefore, accurate MRSA identification and SCC typing of the microorganism is crucial and there is a continuing need for an accurate and speedy identification of MRSA. Early detection of various types of MRSA constitutes an important determinant for the treatment of MRSA-infected patients.

Current methodology in detecting and typing MRSA predominantly involves use of molecular PCR technology. In 1986, Matsuhashi et al. cloned the mecA gene that encodes an alternative penicillin binding protein, pbp2a. The mecA gene is known to exist on SCC of MRSA and coagulase-negative Staphylococci (MRC-NS), but not on methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). The mecA gene is therefore considered a gene adventitiously acquired in the genomes of Staphylococcus aureus. Detection of the mecA gene in the genomic DNA of Staphylococcus aureus generally is achieved by PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or hybridization, which makes it possible to identify it as either MRSA or MRC-NS. However, identification of MRSA using this mecA detection method suffers from the following problems. First, direct detection of the mecA gene from a sample, even if successful, cannot be taken as a proof of the existence of MRSA. Second, this method requires culturing of the bacterial strain from a patient's sample and confirmation of Staphylococcus aureus by a conventional strain identification method. These conventional strain identification methods require a minimum of 48-72 hours to provide a positive MRSA identification. Doctors often are reluctant to provide an empiric therapy until an infectious strain is identified.

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a common form of genetic polymorphism. SNPs may influence gene functions and modify a microorganism's ability to manifest a disease process. Although it is generally understood that a disease often has a genetic component in its etiology and may be unraveled in genetic association studies, to date and to the best of the present inventors' knowledge, there are no reported genetic markers (e.g., SNPs) that are associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), let alone one of the most virulent MRSA (i.e., community-associated MRSA).

Accordingly, there is a need for a genetic marker to predict the presence of CA-MRSA. The need for such a reliable SNP biomarker for CA-MRSA is believed to have utility in the bacteriology application in the detection of MRSA. The present inventors cured all the prior art deficiency and discovered specific SNPs that are useful in predicting the presence of CA-MRSA.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is based on the discovery of particular SNPs in a penicillin-binding protein gene (specifically, penicillin binding protein 3 gene) that represent biomarker candidates for CA-MRSA. In accordance with the present invention, the presence of two (2) SNPs in MRSA represents a good marker for the presence of CA-MRSA. There is disclosed herein methods of detecting these two SNPs.

In one aspect, the present invention provides a two (2) novel SNPs that predict the presence of CA-MRSA and methods of using these SNPs in assessing the presence (or colonization) of CA-MRSA.

In one aspect, the present invention provides the identification of these two (2) novel SNPs that are useful to predict the presence of CA-MRSA in a biological sample from a subject suspected of infection or colonization of CA-MRSA.

In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of detecting the presence of community associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) in a human, comprising the steps of: a) obtaining a biological sample from a human suspected of a CA-MRSA infection; b) isolating genomic material from said biological sample; and c) detecting the presence of a SNP selected from the group consisting of G88A and G2047A present in a penicillin binding protein 3 gene, wherein the presence of said SNP is indicative of the presence of CA-MRSA in said biological sample and infection with CA-MRSA in said human. Preferably, the SNP is G88A, and the SNP causes an amino acid change of V301. Preferably, the SNP is G2047A, the SNP causes an amino acid change of D683N.

In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of detecting the presence of community associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) in a human using a biological sample such as whole blood, plasma, urine and exudate from an infected site.

In one aspect, the present method involves an isolating step that is performed using guanindinium hydrochloride or Qiagen. Preferably, the detecting step is performed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Preferably, the detecting step is performed by real-time PCR, allele-specific PCR or pyrosequencing.

In one aspect, the present invention provides a kit for detecting the presence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) in a human, comprising: (a) a primer pair comprising a forward primer and a reverse primer for amplifying a region containing a SNP selected from the group consisting of G88A and G2047A of the penicillin binding protein 3 gene to produce an amplicon; (b) a sequencing primer for initiating a sequencing reaction for said amplicon; and (c) an instruction of using said primer pair and said sequencing primer in a PCR followed by sequencing reaction to determine the presence of said SNP, wherein the presence of said SNP is indicative of the presence of CA-MRSA. Preferably, said primer pair is producing an amplicon containing said G88A SNP. Preferably, said forward primer is SEQ ID No. 5, said reverse primer is SEQ ID No. 6, and said sequencing primer is SEQ ID No. 5.

In one aspect, the present invention provides a kit for detecting the presence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) in a human, comprising: (a) an allele-specific primer pair comprising a forward primer and a reverse primer for amplifying a region containing a SNP selected from the group consisting of G88A and G2047A of the penicillin binding protein 3 gene to produce an amplicon; and (b) an instruction of using said allele-specific primer pair in a PCR to determine the presence of said SNP, wherein the presence of said SNP is indicative of the presence of CA-MRSA. Preferably, said primer pair comprising a forward primer of SEQ ID No. 26 and a reverse primer of SEQ ID No. 36.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts the designed primer set (forward and reverse primers) used to amplify the N-terminus of the pbp1 gene of Staphylococcus aureus for sequencing. Primers were designed with similar T_(M) values between 45-60° C., a length of 15-35 bases, and a <1 kb amplicon for ease of sequencing.

FIG. 2 depicts the designed primer set (forward and reverse primers) used to amplify the N-terminus of the pbp2 gene of Staphylococcus aureus for sequencing. Primers were designed with similar T_(M) values between 45-60° C., a length of 17-24 bases, and a <1 kb amplicon for ease of sequencing.

FIG. 3 depicts the designed primer set (forward and reverse primers) used to amplify the N-terminus of the pbp3 gene of Staphylococcus aureus for sequencing. Primers were designed with similar T_(M) values between 45-60° C., a length of 17-24 bases, and a <1 kb amplicon for ease of sequencing.

FIG. 4 depicts the designed primer set (forward and reverse primers) used to amplify the N-terminus of the pbp4 gene of Staphylococcus aureus for sequencing. Primers were designed with similar T_(M) values between 45-60° C., a length of 17-24 bases, and a <1 kb amplicon for ease of sequencing.

FIG. 5 depicts the alignment of the N-terminus of the pbp1 gene from nucleotide 71-570 in CA-MRSA, HA-MRSA, and MSSA laboratory strains. The alignment was done by the Megalign program from Lasergene. Differences in sequence from the susceptible MSSA “baseline” are boxed.

FIG. 6 depicts the alignment of the N-terminus of the pbp2 gene from nucleotide 117-562 in CA-MRSA, HA-MRSA, and MSSA laboratory strains. The alignment was done by the Megalign program from Lasergene. Differences in sequence from the susceptible MSSA “baseline” are boxed.

FIG. 7 depicts the alignment of the N-terminus of the pbp3 gene from nucleotide 66-296 in CA-MRSA, HA-MRSA, and MSSA laboratory strains. The alignment was done by the Megalign program from Lasergene. Differences in sequence from the susceptible MSSA “baseline” are boxed.

FIG. 8 depicts the alignment of the N-terminus of the pbp4 gene from nucleotide 91-590 in CA-MRSA, HA-MRSA, and MSSA laboratory strains. The alignment was done by the Megalign program from Lasergene. Differences in sequence from the susceptible MSSA “baseline” are boxed.

FIG. 9 depicts multiplex PCR used to distinguish HA-MRSA (SCC Mec I, II, and III), CA-MRSA (SCC Mec IV), and MSSA. mecA is a MRSA-specific gene, nuc is a Staphylococcus aureus specific gene, ccrAB is SCC Mec IV specific, and SCC Mec bands are MRSA type-specific.

FIG. 10 depicts a portion of sequences (bp 76-119) derived from the pbp3 gene of HA-MRSA strains. The sequences shown exhibit high homology to each other upon alignment, and are highly conserved within HA-MRSA isolates. sccMec (I), sccMec(II), sccMec(III), and 43300, are HA-MRSA representative strains from the ATCC. 5565 and 7085 are clinical HA-MRSA isolates. Nucleotide 88 in the gene is highlighted for future reference as a SNP site, and a guanine is present at that location.

FIG. 11 depicts a portion of sequences (bp 76-119) derived from the pbp3 gene of CA-MRSA strains. The sequences shown exhibit high homology to each other upon alignment, and are highly conserved within CA-MRSA isolates. USA300 is a CA-MRSA representative strain from the ATCC. All remaining strains were isolated from clinical biological samples. The SNP site at nucleotide 88 in the gene is highlighted and an adenine is present at that location. This differs from HA-MRSA (FIG. 10), which has a guanine at that site.

FIG. 12 depicts a portion of sequences (bp 76-119) derived from the pbp3 gene of MSSA strains. The sequences shown exhibit high homology to each other upon alignment, and are highly conserved within MSSA isolates. MSSA25293 and MSSA29213 are MSSA representative strains from the ATCC. All remaining strains were isolated from clinical biological samples. The SNP site at nucleotide 88 in the gene is highlighted and a guanine is present at that location. This is similar to HA-MRSA (FIG. 10), and differs from CA-MRSA (FIG. 11).

FIG. 13 depicts a portion of sequences (bp 76-119) derived from the pbp3 gene of Staphylococcus aureus strains. The figure shows that the G88A seen in CA-MRSA is only observed when SCC Mec type IV and PVL are both present. Representative strains (USA 300, 1646, 5427, 5624 and 4091) of CA-MRSA all had G88A, while a SCC Mec IV and PVL-negative strain (7085) possessed a G88 and a MSSA PVL-positive strain (25293) also had a G88.

FIG. 14 depicts an alignment of pbp3 amino acid sequences from representative HA-MRSA, CA-MRSA, and MSSA strains (COL, USA300, and MSSA476, respectively) that are available publicly through the National Center for Biotechnology Information. The alignment revealed 2 amino acid changes, V301 and D683N, due to SNPs.

FIG. 15 depicts an alignment of pbp3 nucleotide sequences from representative HA-MRSA, CA-MRSA, and MSSA strains (COL, USA300, and MSSA476, respectively) that are available publicly. The alignment revealed the two SNPs responsible for the two amino acid changes seen in FIG. 14. The SNPs observed were G88A and G2047A.

FIG. 16 depicts a nucleotide alignment of all publicly available Staphylococcus aureus pbp3 sequences, separated into HA-MRSA, CA-MRSA, and MSSA categories. All but one isolate fit the pattern seen in clinical samples (FIGS. 10-12), in which HA-MRSA and MSSA have a guanine at nucleotide 88, and CA-MRSA has a G88A single nucleotide polymorphism. Only one CA-MRSA isolate, MW2, has a guanine at position 88.

FIG. 17 depicts a nucleotide alignment of all publicly available Staphylococcus aureus pbp3 sequences, separated into HA-MRSA, CA-MRSA, and MSSA categories. All but one isolate fit the pattern proposed in FIG. 15, in which HA-MRSA and MSSA have a guanine at nucleotide 2047, and CA-MRSA has a G2047A single nucleotide polymorphism. Only one CA-MRSA isolate, MW2, has a guanine at nucleotide 2047.

FIG. 18 depicts the new pbp3 amplification primer set (forward and reverse primers) with different oligonucleotide lengths to show that pbp3 can be amplified with a number of different primers in order to sequence the SNP described. The new primers were designed to flank the G88A SNP.

FIG. 19 depicts the new pbp3 amplification primer set (forward and reverse primers) with different locations along the pbp3 gene to show that pbp3 can be amplified with a number of different primers in order to sequence the SNP described. The new primers were designed to flank the G88A SNP.

FIG. 20 depicts the generation of primers for allele-specific PCR detection of G88 and A88 alleles in the S. aureus pbp3 gene. Staphylococcus epidermidis pbp3 was aligned to S. aureus pbp3 so that primers could be designed to Staphylococcus aureus-specific regions. Four reverse primers were designed to species-specific regions of the gene. Forward primers were created with either the “A” or “G” representing the final nucleotide of the oligonucleotide, with varying penultimate bases to determine which created the greater dynamic instability in order to only amplify in the presence of the desired allele.

FIG. 21 depicts the results of an allele-specific PCR to detect the G88A SNP in CA-MRSA. Only the CA-MRSA DNA was able to amplify with the allele-specific primers. HA-MRSA, MSSA, E. coli, GBS, GAS, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and a 1XTE buffer negative control all failed to amplify.

FIG. 22 depicts the results of an allele-specific PCR to detect the G88 allele in HA-MRSA and MSSA. Only the HA-MRSA and MSSA DNA was able to amplify with these allele-specific primers. CA-MRSA, E. coli, GBS, GAS, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and a 1XTE buffer negative control all failed to amplify.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Definitions

Various terms used throughout this specification shall have the definitions set forth herein.

As used herein, the term “MRSA” refers to Staphylococcus aureus that is resistant to methicillin (i.e., Staphylococcus aureus that does not respond to treatment with β-lactam antibiotics, e.g., methicillin). MRSA contains the SCCmec transposon. MRSA can be subtyped into type I, type II, type III, type IV or type IV. “Type I MRSA” refers to MRSA that contains SCCmec type I and is positive for nuc gene and mecA gene. “Type II MRSA” refers to MRSA that contains SCCmec type II and is positive for nuc gene and mecA gene. “Type III MRSA” refers to MRSA that contains SCCmec type III, and is positive for nuc gene and mecA gene. “Type IV MRSA” refers to MRSA that contains SCCmec type III and is positive for ccrAB gene, nuc gene and mecA gene.

The term “HA-MRSA” refers to hospital-associated MRSA and contains SCCmec type I, II and III.

The term “CA-MRSA” refers to community-associated MRSA. CA-MRSA infections occur in the community and are associated with infections that originate outside the healthcare system (i.e., non-nosocomial infections).

The term “SCCmec DNA” refers to Staphylococcus Cassette Chromosome that contains the mecA, mecR, mecI and ccrAB genes.

The term “mecA” refers to the methicillin resistant gene that encodes the low affinity penicillin binding protein 2 (PBP2a) and it renders the β-lactam resistance to the Staphylococcus aureus.

The term “ccrAB” refers to the gene that encodes transposase/integrase and allows SCC to be a Mobile Genetic Element.

The term “nuc” refers to the Staphylococcus aureus specific gene.

As used herein, “a” or “an” may mean one or more.

The term “multiplex polymerase chain reaction” or “multiplex PCR” is a PCR reaction that consists of multiple primer sets within a single PCR mixture to produce amplicons of varying sizes that are specific to different DNA sequences. By targeting multiple genes at once, additional information may be gained from a single test run that otherwise would require several times the reagents and more time to perform.

The term “OneSwab®” refers to a unique, non-invasive, highly stable specimen collection and transport platform proprietary to Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, LLC. OneSwab® platform consists of polyester fiber swab, liquid transport medium and polyethylene transport vial.

The term “genomic material” refers to DNA, RNA or mRNA molecules isolated from a biological sample.

The term “polymorphism” refers to the occurrence of two or more alternative genomic sequences or alleles between or among different genomes or individuals.

The term “single nucleotide polymorphism” (“SNP”) refers to a site of one nucleotide that varies between alleles.

The term “oligonucleotide” is used interchangeably with “primer” or “polynucleotide.”

The term “primer” refers to an oligonucleotide used to direct an activity to a region of nucleic acid. With PCR, a primer or pair of primers defines the area of the genome to be amplified. A primer is usually about 15 to about 35 nucleotides in length and hybridizes to a region complementary to the target sequence.

The term “probe” refers to an oligonucleotide that hybridizes to a target nucleic acid in a PCR reaction. Target sequence refers to a region of nucleic acid that is to be analyzed and comprises the polymorphic site of interest.

The term “biological sample” is used in a broad sense. Exemplary “biological sample” includes, but are not limited to, fluid sample (e.g., blood, plasma, urine, exudate from an infected area) or tissue samples such as cervix tissue (e.g., cervicovaginal swab), rectal swab and the like. Biological sample used herein derives from a mammal, such as a human.

The term “penicillin binding protein” or “pbp” refers to a group of bacterial proteins that are characterized by their affinity for and binding of β-lactam antibiotics (e.g., penicillin).

The present inventors discovered two (2) novel single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in Staphylococcus aureus as putative molecular biomarkers useful in predicting the presence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA). To the best of the present inventors' knowledge, there has been no association reported regarding any SNP association with CA-MRSA. Specifically, the present invention provides detection of two (2) SNP on the penicillin binding protein gene 3 and association with CA-MRSA. This discovery provides the first report that provides a novel diagnostic test for detection of CA-MRSA.

The present invention provides compositions and methods for detecting a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) associated with the presence of CA-MRSA.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides methods for detecting a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) associated with the presence of CA-MRSA in a mammal. Preferably, the mammal is a human.

The present methods comprise detecting a nucleic acid sequence comprising position 88 of a nucleic acid encoding penicillin binding protein 3 (i.e., G88A), wherein the presence of a G to A substitution at the position 88 of the nucleic acid encoding pbp3 gene indicates that the human subject carries the presence of CA-MRSA.

The present methods also comprise detecting a nucleic acid sequence comprising position 2047 of the nucleic acid encoding penicillin binding protein 3 (i.e., G2047A), wherein the presence of a G to A substitution at the position of the nucleic acid encoding pbp3 gene indicates that the human subject carries the presence of CA-MRSA. Based on the G to A substitution in these positions, the G88A SNP pbp3 causes an amino acid change of V301 on the PBP3 protein. The G2047A SNP pbp3 causes an amino acid change of D683N on the PBP3 protein.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is detected by (a) specifically amplifying a nucleic acid sequence comprising position 88 of a polynucleotide encoding pbp3 gene, thereby amplifying nucleic acids comprising the SNP associated with CA-MRSA; and (b) detecting the amplified nucleic acids, thereby detecting the SNP associated with CA-MRSA.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is detected by (a) specifically amplifying a nucleic acid sequence comprising position 2047 of a polynucleotide encoding pbp3 gene, thereby amplifying nucleic acids comprising the SNP associated with CA-MRSA; and (b) detecting the amplified nucleic acids, thereby detecting the SNP associated with CA-MRSA.

Notably, the nucleic acid sequence of the pbp3 gene may vary slightly among different strains. However, the present inventors discovered that at the positions 88 and 2047, the nucleotides remain constant (i.e., G88 and G2047 in HA-MRSA and MSSA and A88 and A2047 in CA-MRSA). The polymorphisms of G88A and/or G2047A in the CA-MRSA classification do not vary among different strains.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid of the pbp3 gene comprises the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 39 (i.e., Accession No. NC 010079.1; Gene ID 5777252). In another embodiment, the nucleic acid of the pbp3 gene comprises the sequence set forth in Accession No. NC_007793.1; Gene ID 3915175). In yet another embodiment, the nucleic acid of the pbp3 gene comprises the sequence set forth in Accession No. NC_003923.1; Gene ID 1003616).

In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence is specifically amplified using primers comprising the sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 5 and 6. In some embodiments, the SNP is detected by sequencing the amplified nucleic acids.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a kit for detecting a SNP associated with CA-MRSA comprising: (a) an isolated polynucleotide comprising position 88 of a polynucleotide encoding PBP3 protein; (b) primers that specifically amplify the nucleic acid; and (c) an instruction for performing a PCR reaction to detect said SNP (i.e., G88A). The presence of said G88A as indicative of the presence of CA-MRSA.

Preferably, the isolated polynucleotide has a nucleic acid sequence comprising SEQ ID NO. 39. Preferably, the primers comprise the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs. 5, 6, 26 and 36. Preferably, the primers comprise the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs. 26 and 36.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a kit for detecting a SNP associated with CA-MRSA comprising: (a) an isolated polynucleotide comprising position 2047 of a polynucleotide encoding PBP3 protein; (b) primers that specifically amplify the nucleic acid; and (c) an instruction for performing a PCR reaction to detect said SNP (i.e., G2047A). The presence of said G2047A as indicative of the presence of CA-MRSA. Preferably, the kit further comprises information or protocols for performing the amplification procedure that detects the presence of G88A and/or G2047A.

Kits can include, for example, amplification reagents comprising primers sufficient to amplify at least one pbp3 SNP (e.g., G88A and/or G2047A) and at least one probe for amplifying and detecting the polynucleotide sequence. In one embodiment, the present kits further comprise a DNA polymerase and appropriate buffers, salts and other reagents to facilitate amplification reactions.

Our finding is both unexpected and surprising. While there are reports that an alternative protein (i.e., PBP2a) (encoded by mecA) that is situated in a genomic island designated as SCCmec) and has a reduced affinity to β-lactam antibiotics, there has been, however, no report linking penicillin binding protein 3. A recent study also hints to another protein (i.e., PBP4 protein) in CA-MRSA strains MW2 and USA300 that these authors stated that it may play a role in β-lactam resistance (See, Memmi, G. et al., Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, November 2008, Vol. 52, No. 11, pp. 3955-3966). The loss of PBP4 is proposed to severely affect the transcription of PBP2.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides detection of G88A SNP on pbp3, the presence of such SNP as indicative of an infection of CA-MRSA (i.e., presence of CA-MRSA in a patient).

In another embodiment, the present invention provides detection of G2047A SNP on pbp3, the presence of such SNP as indicative of an infection of CA-MRSA (i.e., presence of CA-MRSA in a patient).

In yet another embodiment, the present invention provides detection of both G88A and G2047A SNPs on pbp3, the presence of such SNPs as indicative of an infection of CA-MRSA (i.e., presence of CA-MRSA in a patient). Because the association of G88A and G2047A with CA-MRSA is high, the presence of either G88A or G2047A is a sufficient indicator of an infection of CA-MRSA.

SCC Mec Typing Asay

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of typing Staphylococcus aureus (i.e., classifying the Staphylococcus aureus bacteria into either (i) MSSA or (ii) MRSA). This method has been fully described in our pending application Ser. No. 12/930,663 (entitled “Method of Determining Types I, II, III, IV or V or Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a Biological Sample”), the content of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In this SCC Mec typing assay, we used a multiplex PCR assay. Multiplex PCR allows an investigator to assay two or more different gene targets in a single reaction through the use of multiple probes or primers, each specific for its own target and each comprising a fluorescent moiety that emits at a unique wavelength. Multiplexing is possible with TaqMan® probes, Molecular Beacons, and Scorpions, as recognized by one skilled in the art. Due to its non-specific binding nature, SYBR® Green may not be amenable to multiplexing.

In accordance with the multiplex PCR assay for SCC Mec typing, we used a first primer pair that is specific for SCCmec types I, II and IV, thus permitting the generation of two (2) amplicons with a similar size of about 668 bp (i.e., revealing SCCmectype II or IV), and one (1) amplicon with a size of 566 bp (i.e., revealing SCCmec type I). In the assay, we also used a second primer pair that is specific for SCCmec type III, permitting the generation of one amplicon with a size of 622 bp (i.e., revealing SCCmec type III). We used a third primer pair that is specific type IV, permitting the generation of one amplicon with a size of 334 bp (i.e., revealing the ccrAB gene specific to SCCmec type IV). The different molecular sizes of the amplicons can be conveniently determined and analyzed in a gel, thus allowing the easy identification for types I, II, III or IV MRSA. Notably, the forward primers are selected in the 5′UTR region and they can be the same for the first, second and third primer pairs. A unique property of the forward primer (because of its location within the 5′UTR) conveniently provides specificity of Staphylococcus (i.e., Staphylococcus-specificity).

Detection of SNP (i.e., G88A SNP and/or G2047A SNP)

The present invention is directed to the discovery of two (2) novel SNPs present on penicillin-binding protein 3 gene (i.e., pbp3)—they are G88A and G2047A. Both of these SNPs are shown to be associated with the presence of CA-MRSA. Methods of detection of SNP are known in the art. Exemplary methods are provided herein to illustrate the detection of either G88A and/or G2047A.

According to one aspect of the present invention, detection of the present novel SNPs (i.e., G88A or G2047A) may be performed by a real-time PCR. Real-time PCR may be performed using exonuclease primers (TaqMan® probes) using a biological sample obtained from a human suspected of a MRSA infection.

In one embodiment, the primers utilize the 5′ exonuclease activity of thermostable polymerases such as Taq to cleave dual-labeled probes present in the amplification reaction (See, e.g., Wittwer, C. et al. Biotechniques 22:130-138, 1997). While complementary to the PCR product, the primer probes used in this assay are distinct from the PCR primer and are dually-labeled with both a molecule capable of fluorescence and a molecule capable of quenching fluorescence. When the probes are intact, intramolecular quenching of the fluorescent signal within the DNA probe leads to little signal. When the fluorescent molecule is liberated by the exonuclease activity of Taq during amplification, the quenching is greatly reduced leading to increased fluorescent signal. Non-limiting example fluorescent probes include 6-carboxy-floruescein moiety and the like. Exemplary quenchers include Black Hole Quencher 1 moiety and the like.

In another embodiment, real-time PCR methods may include the use of molecular beacon technology. The molecular beacon technology utilizes hairpin-shaped molecules with an internally-quenched fluorophore whose fluorescence is restored by binding to a DNA target of interest (See, e.g., Kramer, R. et al. Nat. Biotechnol. 14:303-308, 1996).

In another embodiment, real-time PCR methods may also include the use of one or more hybridization probes, which may also be determined by those skilled in the art, in view of this disclosure. Exemplary probes such as the HEX channel and/or FAM channel probes, as understood by one skilled in the art.

According to another aspect of the present invention, allele-specific PCR may be performed to detect the presently discovered SNPs (i.e., G88A and/or G2047A) in a biological sample. The allele-specific PCR method operates on the basis of the specific amplification of a target allele by the PCR with primers designed such that their 3′ ends are placed at the mutation site (i.e., the 3′-most nucleotide of the primer corresponds to the mutated nucleotide in the target/template nucleic acid). When this base is complementary to that of the corresponding nucleotide of the specific allele, the target is amplified; when it is not complementary PCR will proceed with a significant delay. The longer the delay, the more efficiently the system can discriminate between alleles.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides oligonucleotides that are useful for allele-specific PCR. Such oligonucleotides comprise a specificity enhancing group that improves discrimination between alleles.

The ability to discriminate between alleles by allele-specific PCR may be improved by using DNA polymerases modified to be substantially unable to extend an oligonucleotide when the 3′-most nucleotide of the oligonucleotide is not base paired with the target nucleic acid sequence. The preparation of such modified DNA polymerases is disclosed in WO 99/10366 and WO 98/35060, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. These publications disclose the cloning and mutagenesis of thermostable polymerases, in particular, the thermostable DNA polymerase isolated from Thermatoga spp.

In one embodiment, an allele-specific primer may be designed based on only one mismatch (based on the polymorphic site) of one of the alleles. The preparation of such allele-specific primers is well-known in the art and within the capacity of the molecular PCR field.

In another embodiment, an allele-specific primer is designed with a penultimate nucleotide mismatch. Often this second approach may enhance the specificity of the reaction. For example, in the scenario of G88A, an allele-specific primer was prepared such that the primer had a penultimate nucleotide sequence of AA, CA or GA (See, Table 13). Without the penultimate nucleotide mismatch, the allele-specific primer was TA (See, Table 13). It is apparent from this study that using a penultimate nucleotide mismatch may be preferable because of its enhanced specificity (See, Table 13).

An exemplary allele-specific PCR primers useful in detection of G88A SNP (associated with CA-MRSA) includes a forward primer (i.e., SEQ ID NO. 26), and a reverse primer (i.e., SEQ ID NO. 36). For control allele-specific PCR primers useful in the detection of MSSA, and HA-MRSA, an exemplary allele-specific PCR primers includes a forward primer (i.e., SEQ ID NO. 30), and a reverse primer (i.e., SEQ ID NO. 36).

According to another aspect of the present invention, sequencing may be performed to detect SNPs in a biological sample. A variety of automated sequencing procedures can be utilized ((1995) Biotechniques 19:448), including sequencing by mass spectrometry (see, e.g., PCT International Publication No. WO94/16101; Cohen et al., Adv. Chromatogr. 36:127-162 (1996); and Griffin et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 38:147-159 (1993)). The nucleic acid sequences of the present invention enable one of ordinary skill in the art to readily design sequencing primers for such automated sequencing procedures. Commercial instrumentation, such as the Applied Biosystems 377, 3100, 3700, 3730, and 3730×1 DNA Analyzers (Foster City, Calif.), is commonly used in the art for automated sequencing.

Given that the pbp3 gene nucleotide sequence is publically available (e.g., NCBI Accession No. NC_002953.3; Gene ID NO. 2861917), one skilled in the art may conveniently design a primer set that would amplify the region containing the G88A SNP present on the pbp3 gene. A resulting PCR product (i.e., amplicon) of size approximately 300-700 bp is considered to be suitable for sequencing purposes. In this application, an exemplary forward primer of SEQ ID NO. 5 and a reverse primer of SEQ ID NO. 6 are provided herein. This primer set is shown to sufficient to amplify the G88A gene region on pbp3 gene (See, FIG. 3).

To perform sequencing, one skilled in the art would employ a sequencing primer in conjunction with a Sequencing Instrument (e.g., ABI 3130 Genetic Analyzer). An exemplary sequencing primer (i.e., SEQ ID NO. 5) is provided herein.

According to another aspect of the present invention, pyrosequencing may be used to detect the novel SNPs (i.e., G88A and/or G2047A) in pbp3 gene a biological sample. Pyrosequencing involves a cascade of four enzymatic reactions that permit the indirect luciferase-based detection of the pyrophosphate released when DNA polymerase incorporates a dNTP into a template-directed growing oligonucleotide. Each dNTP is added individually and sequentially to the same reaction mixture, and subjected to the four enzymatic reactions. Light is emitted only when a dNTP is incorporated, thus signaling which dNTP in incorporated. Unincorporated dNTPs are degraded by apyrase prior to the addition of the next dNTP. The method can detect heterozygous individuals in addition to heterozygotes. Pyrosequencing uses single stranded template, typically generated by PCR amplification of the target sequence. One of the two amplification primers is biotinylated thereby enabling streptavidin capture of the amplified duplex target. Streptavidin-coated beads are useful for this step. The captured duplex is denatured by alkaline treatment, thereby releasing the non-biotinylated strand. The detection primer used for SNP identification using pyrosequencing is designed to hybridize to a sequence 3′ to the SNP.

In one embodiment, the 3′ sequence is adjacent, or more preferably, immediately adjacent to the SNP position. Thus, the SNP identity is ascertained when the first nucleotide is incorporated.

Pyrosequencing, as described above, comprises a series of steps for the accurate and qualitative analysis of DNA sequences. Pyrosequencing comprises hybridizing a sequencing primer to a single stranded, PCR amplified, DNA template, and incubating the primers and DNA template with the standard PCR enzymes (e.g. DNA polymerase) with ATP sulfurylase, luciferase and apyrase, and the substrates, adenosine 5′ phosphosulfate (APS) and luciferin. The first of four deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs) is added to the reaction as a second step. DNA polymerase catalyzes the incorporation of the deoxyribo-nucleotide triphosphate to the complementary base in the target DNA template strand. Each incorporation event is accompanied by release of pyrophosphate (PPi) in a quantity equimolar to the amount of incorporated nucleotide. In the third step, ATP sulfurylase quantitatively converts PPi to ATP in the presence of APS. This ATP drives the luciferase mediated conversion of luciferin to oxyluciferin and generates visible light proportional to the amount of ATP. The light produced in the luciferase-catalyzed reaction is detected by a charge coupled device (CCD) camera and seen as a peak in a Pyrogram™. The height of each peak (light signal) is proportional to the number of nucleotides incorporated. As a fourth step, apyrase, a nucleotide degrading enzyme, continuously degrades ATP and unincorporated dNTPs. This reaction switches off the light and regenerates the reaction solution. The next dNTP is then added one at a time and the process is repeated for each dNTP (i.e. dCTP, dGTP, dTTP) in the fifth step. Deoxyadenosine alfa-thio triphosphate (dATPaS) is used as a substitute for deoxyadenosine triphosphate (dATP) since it is efficiently used by the DNA polymerase, but not recognized by the luciferase. As the process continues, the complementary DNA strand is built up and the nucleotide sequence is determined from the signal peaks in the Pyrogram. Pyrosequencing analytical software assigns both genotype and quantifies the signal strength of each allele. Genotype and signal strength are outputted to standard spreadsheet format. Methods for accomplishing pyrosequencing reactions are well known in the art and are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,258,568 and 6,258,568. Kits, apparatuses and reagents for pyrosequencing are commercially available from, for example, Biotage Ab, (Uppsala, Sweden).

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES Example 1 Sequencing of Penicillin Binding Proteins (Pbp 1-4) in Staphylococcus aureus

a) Sequencing of PBP 1-4

In 2009, Contreras-Martel et al. described single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in the N-terminus of a Streptococcus pneumoniae penicillin binding protein (pbp) gene ultimately leading to decreased susceptibility to beta-lactam antibiotics. Therefore, we focused on sequencing portions of the N-termini of the four (4) penicillin binding proteins (pbps) (i.e., pbp1, pbp2, pbp3 and pbp4) in Staphylococcus aureus. We designed the primer sets (See, FIGS. 1-4) to amplify approximately 500 base pairs of the N-termini of these four (4) pbps.

We chose several representative laboratory strains of MSSA, CA-MRSA, and HA-MRSA to amplify DNA for sequencing. To do so, we extracted the genomic DNA from these laboratory strains of Staphylococcus aureus by lysing these laboratory strains with an anionic detergent followed by precipitation with 2-propanol using the modified Qiagen Gentra Puregene cell kit method outlined in the “Experimental Methods and Protocols” section (See below). The PCR conditions for amplifying the pbps 1-4 are shown in Table 1.

The resulting PCR products were subject to sequence analysis using the ABI3130 Genetic Analyzer with the sequencing protocol detailed in Table 2. We subsequently used the Megalign program from Lasergene to align the sequences of the three laboratory strains (i.e., MSSA, CA-MRSA, and HA-MRSA) for each of the pbp 1-4.

b) Sequence Alignment and SNP Analysis

FIG. 5 shows the nucleotide sequence alignment of the pbp 1 among the MSSA, CA-MSRA and HA-MRSA. FIG. 6 shows the nucleotide sequence alignment of the pbp 2 among the MSSA, CA-MSRA and HA-MRSA. FIG. 7 shows the nucleotide sequence alignment of the pbp 3 among the MSSA, CA-MSRA and HA-MRSA. FIG. 8 shows the nucleotide sequence alignment of the pbp 4 among the MSSA, CA-MSRA and HA-MRSA. Nucleotide polymorphisms exhibit among the MSSA, CA-MSRA and HA-MRSA are boxed in black. (See, FIGS. 5-8 for pbp 1-4, respectively). The resulting single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are summarized in Table 3.

Because we can conveniently use mecA to detect and differentiate MRSA (i.e., HA-MRSA and CA-MRSA) from MSSA, we focused our attention to SNPs that are unique to HA-MRSA or CA-MRSA. We discovered a SNP (i.e., G88A) in the pbp3 gene of CA-MRSA isolates that is unique to CA-MRSA and not present in HA-MRSA or MSSA. This discovery opens a path to evaluate this particular SNP (i.e., G88A) as a potential molecular biomarker for diagnosis of CA-MRSA.

Example 2 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) in Staphylococcus aureus Pbp3 Gene and Association with Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

We sought to examine the validity of the G88A SNP of the pbp 3 gene as a molecular biomarker for detecting community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA). To accomplish this, we obtained and phenotypically classified a large number of clinically isolated strains.

A) Clinical Samples—Determination of Infections with MRSA, CA-MRSA, HA-MRSA or MSSA

i) Patient Study

In the initial experiments, we obtained biological samples from forty-seven (47) patients suspected of infections caused by different types of Staphylococcus aureus; namely: (i) MRSA, (ii) community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA), (iii) hospital-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA) or (iv) methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA).

The gender and age information of these patients are summarized in Table 4. The provided patient information is in accordance with HIPAA regulations regarding patient confidentiality. A random isolate number was provided for each particular clinical isolate. The anatomical sites whereby Staphylococcus aureus was collected are provided. As noted in Table 4, the biological samples were collected from various age groups. N/A indicates situations where data were unavailable.

Swabs from the forty-seven (47) patients were obtained from different sites (i.e., vagina, thigh, chin, buttock, etc.). We then isolated single colonies of Staphylococcus aureus by streaking the biological samples onto Mannitol Salt agar plates. When cultured onto Mannitol Salt agar, Staphylococcus aureus specifically turns the red agar into yellow, which provides ease of identification.

Single colonies of Staphylococcus aureus were picked and grown overnight in tryptic soy broth. Cells were then pelleted, had peptidoglycan digested, and were subsequently lysed. RNAse (1.5 μL) was added to remove RNA and excess protein was precipitated. Genomic DNA was precipitated using isopropanol, and then hydrated in buffer. Genomic DNA was isolated from the biological samples using standard protocols as detailed in “Experimental Protocols and Methods”. Extracted DNA was used for PCR reactions described herein in this application. Purity of the genomic DNA was confirmed by spectrophotometry (A₂₆₀/A₂₈₀).

SCC Mec Typing Asay

We also used Staphylococcus aureus genomic DNA in an SCC Mec typing assay (See, Tables 5, 6 and FIG. 9) to determine whether the colony was HA-MRSA, CA-MRSA, MSSA, or some other organism.

In essence, we have successfully developed a multiplex PCR assay for SCC Mec typing. The multiplex PCR assay consists of several sets of primers in order to differentiate the different types of Staphylococcus aureus. Specifically, mecA primers amplified the MRSA-specific determinant gene, separating MRSA from MSSA. A Staphylococcus aureus specific gene, nuc, was used to detect MS SA, and also to distinguish whether an isolate tested was MRSA or a different methicillin-resistant bacterium. SCC Mec typing primers differentiated types I and III from II and IV (all have different size amplicons except II and IV). A ccrAB primer specifically detected the type IV ccrAB, differentiating types II and IV.

If a particular colony tested was SCC Mec type IV, a RT-PCR was performed to see if that strain possessed the Panton-Valentine Leukocidin (PVL) gene (Table 7). By convention, CA-MRSA is defined as SCC type IV and PVL positive. SCC types I-III were considered HA-MRSA. The detailed procedure for the developed assay is provided in details in a related patent application (entitled “Method of Determining Types I, II, III, IV or V of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a Biological Sample” Ser. No. 12/930,663, filed on Jan. 13, 2010, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety).

Table 8 displays the phenotypic analysis of the forty-seven (47) clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates used. Forty-one (41) isolates were determined to be MRSA and six (6) isolates were determined to be MSSA by the PCR described in Table 6. Of the forty-one (41) MRSA isolates, thirty-nine (39) were determined to be CA-MRSA and two (2) were determined to be HA-MRSA by the PCR described in Table 6.

B) PCR Amplification and Sequencing of Pbp3 from Clinical Staphylococcus aureus Isolates

Next, we confirmed our findings (G88A SNP in CA-MRSA) that was observed in laboratory strains (See, Example 1) using the available clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates. To do so, PCR amplification of pbp3 from the forty-seven (47) clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates was carried out using primer sets from FIG. 3 and methods described in Table 1. Table 1 provides a protocol for the PCR amplification of a part of the pbp3 gene of Staphylococcus aureus from genomic DNA. High fidelity Taq Polymerase was used to ensure that any polymorphisms observed were not attributable to a low fidelity polymerase.

Resulting amplicons were PCR purified using the Stratagene PCR Purification kit as described by the manufacturer in order to have the purest DNA to sequence. DNA sequencing was performed using the ABI 3130 Genetic Analyzer as described by the manufacturer using the methods described in Table 2.

Nucleotide sequences obtained were entered into the NCBI BLAST program described previously and aligned to the available reference sequences to ensure that the sequencing was successful. If the sequencing was successful, the nucleotide at position 88 within the pbp3 gene was examined to determine if the G88A SNP was present. The results, summarized in FIGS. 10-12, are as follows: two (2) sequenced clinical HA-MRSA strains and four (4) sequenced laboratory HA-MRSA strains had a “G” at nucleotide 88 (See, FIG. 10), 39 sequenced clinical CA-MRSA strains and one (1) sequenced laboratory CA-MRSA strain all possessed the G88A SNP (See, FIG. 11), and six (6) sequenced clinical MSSA strains and two (2) sequenced laboratory strains had a “G” at position 88 in pbp3 (See, FIG. 12).

Of note is that G88A was not observed in the single SCC IV strain that was PVL negative as well as in a PVL positive MSSA strain (See, FIG. 13), which supports the claim that G88A is a molecular biomarker specific for CA-MRSA. This shows that the SNP (i.e., G88A) is not dependent on PVL or SCC Mec IV alone, but only when both genes are present. Because of this, the SNP (i.e., G88A) described eliminates false positives that occur by using PVL or SCC Mec typing alone.

Example 3 Nucleotide Sequence Alignment of Publicly Available Staphylococcus aureus Pbp3 Sequences from NCBI

A) Representative Laboratory Strains

To further confirm our findings in the clinical samples, we chose to examine representative Staphylococcus aureus laboratory strain types; namely, Hospital-Associated MRSA (HA-MRSA), Community-Associated MRSA (CA-MRSA), and methicillin susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) laboratory strain types. Publicly available amino acid and nucleotide sequences for representative strains (COL=HA-MRSA, Accession: NC_002951.2; USA300=CA-MRSA, Accessions: NC_007793.1 and NC_010079.1; MSSA476=MSSA, Accession: NC_002953.3) were aligned using the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) BLAST program.

In this sequence analysis, we aligned amino acid sequences of the penicillin binding protein 3 (pbp3). Through the amino acid alignment, two (2) amino acid changes of interest, V301 and D683N, were identified (See, FIG. 14). Both amino acid changes were found only in CA-MRSA (USA300 strain) and not in the other two (2) laboratory strain types.

We next aligned nucleotide sequences of the pbp3 gene and the nucleotide alignment was able to elucidate the exact nucleotide changes responsible for the two (2) amino acid changes; that is, G88A led to V301 and G2047A caused D683N (See, FIG. 15). Together, these data confirm that the discovered nucleotide sequence changes (i.e., SNP) may serve as good biomarkers for CA-MRSA.

B) Additional Representative Laboratory Strains

Fourteen (14) diverse Staphylococcus aureus strains have been sequenced and their pbp3 sequences had been publicly available on the NCBI website. The nucleotides sequences of all of these fourteen (14) strains were aligned and compared to each other. The fourteen (14) strains used in our study were COL, Accession: NC_002951.2; N315, Accession: NC_002745.2; Mu50, Accession: NC_002758.2; MRSA252, Accession: NC_002952.2; JH1, Accession: NC_009632.1; JH9, Accession: NC_009487.1; Mu3, Accession: NC_009782.1; USA300 37, Accession: NC_007793.1; USA300 15, Accession: NC_010079.1; MW2, Accession: NC_003923.1; MSSA476, Accession: NC_002953.3; NCTC8325, Accession: NC_007795.1; RF122, Accession: NC_007622.1; and Newman, Accession: NC_009641.1.

After grouping the strains by phenotype, it appeared that the G88A and G2047A SNPs only occur in CA-MRSA strains (See, FIGS. 16 and 17, respectively). Specifically, G88A and G2047A SNPs are present in the USA300 genotype which predominates as the leading cause of CA-MRSA infections. All of the HA-MRSA (7) and MSSA (4) strains possessed guanine (G) at the positions 88 and 2047 in the pbp3 gene (instead of adenine (A)). Two independent USA300 CA-MRSA strains had adenine, while a rare CA-MRSA strain known as MW2 had guanine at position 88 and 2047 within the gene. Since MW2 (USA 400) is a rare strain, and USA300 is a very common MRSA strain (See, Table 9), the SNPs described serve as good molecular markers to detect a high percentage of CA-MRSA. The sequences of the public strains further confirm the utility of our experimentally determined G88A SNP in the detection of CA-MRSA isolates.

Example 4 Statistical Analyses

Using the data compiled from NCBI GenBank sequences and from in-house sequencing, statistical analyses were performed on the available set of sequences (Table 10).

Out of the possible 43 CA-MRSA isolates, 42 possessed the G88A SNP, which translated to 97.7% sensitivity of the SNP to predict CA-MRSA. Out of 25 total MSSA and HA-MRSA strains, none had G88A (i.e., all had G88), which translated to 100% specificity. Positive predictive value, which is the confidence that a strain deemed CA-MRSA is in fact CA-MRSA, was calculated to be 100%, since there were no false positives. Negative predictive value, which is the confidence that a strain that is called non-CA-MRSA is actually HA-MRSA or MSSA, was calculated to be 96.2% since there was a single false negative.

Example 5 Varying Oligonucleotide Sizes and Placement

In order to show that size of oligonucleotides used in the amplification PCR is irrelevant in the detection of the SNPs described, primer sets described in FIG. 18 were designed in various lengths. Amplification was not hindered by these changes, therefore variation in size of oligonucleotides is irrelevant, as long as they flank the SNPs described in order to be properly sequenced.

In order to demonstrate that placement of oligonucleotides used in the amplification PCR is irrelevant in the detection of the SNPs described, as long as the SNPs described fall between the primer sets, primer sets seen in FIG. 19 were designed at varying distances from the SNP, making sure to keep the SNP within the amplicon. Amplification was not hindered by this change, therefore we concluded that variation in location of oligonucleotides is irrelevant, as long as they flank the SNPs described in order to be properly sequenced.

Example 6 Association Between G88A and G2047A

As shown in FIGS. 16 and 17, the two (2) SNPs described in the present invention appear together in absolute linkage disequilibrium and correlate well with each other in all GenBank sequences examined. Detection of either one of the SNPs described works just as well as the other. Sequencing in Example 2 of this patent was limited to the G88A SNP in order to limit superfluous data since the correlation had already been made.

Example 7 Development of an Allele-Specific PCR for Detection of G88A SNP in Staphylococcus aureus Pbp3 Gene

In this experiment, we developed an allele-specific PCR as a useful assay to detect G88A and/or G2047A SNPs in a simple PCR reaction. Primers were designed to G88 or A88 alleles. The G or A served as the final nucleotide of the forward primer. In order to gain extra sensitivity, the penultimate base was altered to be a mismatch, creating dynamic instability of the primers. Therefore, with one mismatch, the next base would absolutely need to match in order to be extended by DNA polymerase.

Design of the primers is shown in FIG. 20, in which Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis were aligned to find regions of high Staphylococcus aureus specificity in order to design species-specific reverse primers. The designed primer sequences are listed in Table 11. The different primer combinations and their success in PCR are described in Table 13. The PCR reaction is described in Table 12.

FIG. 21 shows the amplification of only CA-MRSA using the A88 primer set, with no non-specific bands from other organisms, while FIG. 22 shows all HA-MRSA and MSSA strains amplified with the G88 primer set with no non-specific amplification from other organisms.

Example 8 PCR Amplification and Sequencing Assay to Detect G88A SNP or G2047A SNP in Community-Associated Staphylococcus aureus

As described in Example 1, an alternative way to detect the G88A or G2047 SNP from a sample is to amplify a segment or the entire gene via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using a high fidelity DNA polymerase (See, Table 1). The resulting PCR product was run in a cycle sequencing reaction (See, Table 2) and the sequence was read using specialized equipment (i.e., ABI 3130 Genetic Analyzer). PCR amplification and sequencing allowed the direct visualization of the nucleotide present at each position within the gene amplified and allowed the determination of the presence of G88A and/or G2047A SNPs.

Experimental Methods and Protcols

Cell Lysis:

-   1. Centrifuge 4 ml overnight culture of bacteria (e.g., GBS, C.     difficile, and Staphylococcus aureus) into 1.5 ml centrifuge tube at     14,000×g for 2 minutes. -   2. Remove as much supernatant as possible to obtain a tight pellet. -   3. Add 300 μl cell suspension solution to cell pellet and gently     pipette up and down until the cells are suspended. -   4. Add 6 μl Lytic enzyme solution (5 μl Lysozyme+1 μl Mutanolysin)     and invert the tube 25 times to mix. -   5. Incubate at 37° C. for 30 minutes to digest cell walls. Invert     samples occasionally during incubation. -   6. Centrifuge at 14,000×g for 1 minute to pellet the cells. Remove     supernatant. -   7. Add 300 μl cell Lysis solution to the cell pellet and gently     pipette up and down to lyse the cells. -   8. Heat the samples at 80° C. for 5 minutes to complete the lysis.

II. RNase Treatment:

-   1. Add 1.5 μl RNase A solution to the cell lysate. -   2. Mix the samples by inverting the tube 25 times and incubate at     37° C. for 30 minutes.

III. Protein Precipitation:

-   1. Cool samples to room temperature by placing on ice for 1 minute. -   2. Add 100 μl Protein Precipitation Solution to the cell lysate. -   3. Vortex vigorously at high speed for 20 seconds to mix the protein     precipitation solution uniformly with cell lysate. -   4. Place samples on ice for 15 minutes. -   5. Centrifuge at 14,000×g for 5 minutes. The precipitated protein     should form a tight white pellet. If the protein pellet is not tight     repeat step 3 followed by incubation on ice for 5 minutes, then     repeat step 5.

IV. DNA Precipitation:

-   1. Pour the supernatant containing the DNA (leaving behind the     precipitated protein pellet) into a clean 1.5 ml centrifuge tube     containing 300 ul 100% Isopropanol (2-propanol). -   2. Mix the sample by inverting gently 50 times. -   3. Centrifuge at 14,000×g for 2 minutes. -   4. Pour off the supernatant and drain tube briefly on clean     absorbent paper. Add 300 μl 70% Ethanol (210 μl 100% ethanol+90 μl     ddH2O) and invert tube several times to wash the DNA pellet. -   5. Centrifuge at 14,000×g for 1 minute. Carefully pour off the     Ethanol. Pellet may be loose so pour slowly and watch pellet. -   6. Invert and drain tube on clean absorbent paper and allow to dry     15-20 minutes.

V. DNA Hydration:

-   1. Add 50 μl DNA Hydration solution and rehydrate DNA by incubating     sample either for 1 hour at 65° C. or overnight at room temperature.     If possible, tap tube periodically to aid in dispersing the DNA. -   2. Store DNA at −20° C. For long term store at −80° C.

Although the invention has been described in example embodiments, additional modifications and variations would be apparent to those skilled in the art. It is therefore to be understood that the inventions herein may be practiced other than as specifically described. Thus, the present embodiments should be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive. Accordingly, it is intended that such changes and modifications fall within the scope of the present invention as defined by the claims appended hereto.

TABLE 1 PCR Amplification of pbp1-4 Master Mix USB 10x PCR Buffer (+2.5 mM MgCl₂)  2.5 μl ddH₂O 15.4 μl SEQ ID 1/3/5/7 (10 μM)  1.5 μl SEQ ID 2/4/6/8 (10 μM)  1.5 μl dNTPs (2.5 mM)  2.0 μl Fidelitaq  0.1 μl DNA  2.0 μl Total   25 μl Thermal Profile Step Temp Time 1 94° C.  2 min 2 94° C. 30 sec 3 55° C.  1 min 4 72° C.  1 min 5 72° C. 10 min 6  4° C. hold *repeat steps 2-4 for 30 cycles PCR products purified for sequencing using Stratagene PCR Purification Kit.

TABLE 2 pbp1-4 Sequencing PCR Master Mix Terminator Ready Reaction Mix v1.1  8 μl SEQ ID 1/3/5/7 (1 μM)  3 μl Purified pbp PCR product  4 μl ddH₂O  5 μl Total 20 μl Thermal Profile Step Temp Time 1 96° C.  1 min 2 96° C. 10 sec 3 50° C.  5 sec 4 60° C.  4 min 5  4° C. hold *repeat steps 2-4 for 25 cycles Sequences of PCR products analyzed using ABI 3130 genetic analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA)

TABLE 3 Summary of Potential Penicillin Binding Protein SNPs HA-MRSA CA-MRSA pbp1 G159A, G352A, C399T, A507C G159A, G352A, C399T, A507C pbp2 C114T, G117T, T132C, A226T, T132C A293C, A330C, T426A, T458A, A510C pbp3 X73A, A120T, X295C X73A, G88A, X295C pbp4 T158G, T165A, A183G, G202T, T165A, A267C A267C, A268T, A301G, A375G, T407G, A408C, T476A, A522T, C528T, G529T, T530A, T543G pbp1 Alignment from nucleotide 71 to 570 pbp2 Alignment from nucleotide 114 to 562 pbp3 Alignment from nucleotide 66 to 296 pbp4 Alignment from nucleotide 91 to 590

TABLE 4 Patient Data for Biological Samples Isolate # Swab Site Age Gender 1549 Vulva 48 F 8038 N/A N/A N/A 8741 Vulva 62 F 8931 Vaginal 56 F 3481 Vulva 53 F 5565 Vulva 19 F 8050 N/A 64 F 1728 Vag/Cervical N/A F 5624 Vulva N/A F 5427 Vulva 29 F 1646 Vulva 42 F 5974 Vulva 31 F 7419 Labia 34 F 3715 Vag/End-vulva 46 F 2464 Vag/Labia 27 F 6634 Vaginal 63 F  291 Vaginal 83 F 4303 Vulva Lesion 60 F 2368 Vulva 73 F 1586 Vulva 53 F 7526 Vaginal 76 F 2973 Perineum 41 F 4813 Buttock 49 F 4163 Abcess Rt Buttock 52 F 4091 Thigh 29 F 6729 Buttock N/A F  966 Abdomen 35 M 1138 Buttock 67 F 6050 L Thigh 42 F 6388 L Buttock B 46 F 8098 chin skin 1 F 5470 Groin 60 F 3849 N/A 22 F 7384 N/A 25 F 8568 N/A 19 F 5929 N/A 24 F 4852 N/A 36 F 4746 Vaginal 60 F 8555 N/A 36 F 7783 N/A 9 F 7085 N/A 49 F 8358 N/A N/A N/A 8284 N/A N/A N/A 8228 N/A N/A N/A 8305 N/A N/A N/A 2037 N/A N/A N/A 6072 N/A N/A N/A

TABLE 5 Primers/Probes for SCC Mec Typing sccMec typing of Methicillin- Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Primers/ Oligonucleotide Sequences Probes 5′ to 3′ SEQ ID NOs. nuc F1 GTGCTGGCATATGTATGG SEQ ID NO. 9 nuc R1 CGCTTTAATTAATGTCGCAGG SEQ ID NO. 10 mecA2 F GTACTGCTATCCACCCTCAAACAG SEQ ID NO. 11 mecA2 R GAACCTGGTGAAGTTGTAATCTGG SEQ ID NO. 12 sccIV  GTTGAAAGATGCAAAAGAAGGCA SEQ ID NO. 13 ccrAB F2 sccIV  GTTAATCATTAGCTCGTGTTTACTA SEQ ID NO. 14 ccrAB R1 TC mec3b CGTATGATATTGCAAGGTATAATCC SEQ ID NO. 15 mec124b GACTGCGGAGGCTAACTATGTC SEQ ID NO. 16 Sa5pUTR3 CTTGTGGATAACTGGAAAGTT SEQ ID NO. 17 PVL F2 AGTCAAATCATCAGTTGTTACATCA SEQ ID NO. 18 PVLR2 ATCGGAATCTGATGTTGCAG SEQ ID NO. 19 PVL probe ATGCAGCTCAACATATCACACCTGT SEQ ID NO. 20 2 (FAM) A

TABLE 6 MRSA sccMEC type Multiplex PCR in differentiating HA-MRSA, CA-MRSA, and MSSA Master Mix Quanta Perfecta 12.5 ul SuperMix for iQ ddH₂O  5.4 ul SEQ ID 9 (30 μM)  0.1 μl SEQ ID 10 (30 μM)  0.1 μl SEQ ID 11 (30 μM)  0.1 μl SEQ ID 12 (30 μM)  0.1 μl SEQ ID 13 (30 μM)  0.2 μl SEQ ID 14 (30 μM)  0.2 μl SEQ ID 15 (30 μM)  0.6 μl SEQ ID 16 (30 μM)  0.1 μl SEQ ID 17 (30 μM)  0.6 μl DNA 10.0 μl Total 30.0 μl Thermal Profile Step Temp Time 1 94° C.  3 min Run using Stratagene 2 94° C. 30 sec Mx3000p  3** 70° C.  1 min 4 72° C.  1 min 5 72° C. 10 min 6  4° C. hold *repeat steps 2-4 for 40 cycles **Step 3 is to make this a touch-down PCR. Every cycle, step 3 drops 1° C. until the temperature is 58° C., at which point, step 3 holds at 58° C..

TABLE 7 Panton-Valentine Leukocidin RT-PCR in determining whether a MRSA isolate is CA-MRSA Master Mix Quanta Perfecta SuperMix for iQ  7.5 μl ddH₂O  3.9 μl SEQ ID 18 (30 μM)  0.4 μl SEQ ID 19 (30 μM)  0.4 μl SEQ ID 20 (10 μM)  0.3 μl DNA  2.5 μl Total 15.0 μl Thermal Profile Step Temp Time 1 50° C.  2 min 2 94° C.  3 min 3 94° C. 15 sec 4 60° C. 30 sec *repeat steps 2-4 for 38 cycles Read using Stratagene Mx3000p, reading fluorescence on FAM channel. Amplification in the form of a C_(t) score showed presence of PVL toxin. Isolates determined to be sccMec type IV and have PVL present were considered Community-Associated MRSA.

TABLE 8 Summary of Biological Samples from Patients Staphylococcus aureus Types # of Isolates MRSA 41 HA-MRSA 2 CA-MRSA 39 MSSA 6

TABLE 9 CDC Study showing the frequency of different HA-MRSA and CA-MRSA strains PFGE type No. (%) USA100 1,063 (53.6) USA200 15 (0.8) USA300 627 (31.6) USA400 6 (0.3) USA500 74 (3.7) USA600 14 (0.7) USA700 8 (0.4) USA800 38 (1.9) USA1000 16 (0.8) USA1100 8 (0.4) Iberian 36 (1.8) Novel type 11 (0.6) EMRSA15 4 (0.2) Group D 2 (0.1) Nontypeable 1 (0.1) Not done 61 (3.1) Total 1,984

USA300 is shown to be the most common CA-MRSA. The table also shows that MW2 (also named USA400) is a very rare CA-MRSA strain. Since FIGS. 11 and 16 showed that USA300 has the G88A SNP, the SNP can serve as a good marker for CA-MRSA. J Clin Microbiol. 2009 May; 47(5):1344-51. Representative CA-MRSA PFGE types are boxed.

TABLE 10 Derivation of Statistics Statistical derivation of sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value for the G88A SNP's ability to predict CA-MRSA. Statistical methods used are from Altman DG, Bland J.M. (1994). “Diagnostic tests. 1: Sensitivity and specificity” BMJ 308 (6943): 1552. a) Breakdown of Sequencing vs. in-house PCR and GenBank 43 CA-MRSA (39 clinical samples, 1 laboratory in-house, 3 GenBank) 42 had G88A SNP (true pos.), 1 was G88 (false neg.) 13 HA-MRSA (2 clinical, 4 laboratory in-house, 7 GenBank) 13 G88 (true neg.), no G88A (false pos.) 12 MSSA (6 clinical, 2 laboratory in-house, 4 GenBank) 12 G88 (true neg.), no G88A (false pos.) ${\left. b \right)\mspace{14mu}{Sensitivity}\mspace{14mu}\%} = \frac{\#\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{True}\mspace{14mu}{Positives}}{{\#\mspace{14mu}{True}\mspace{14mu}{Positives}} + {\#\mspace{14mu}{False}\mspace{14mu}{Negatives}*100}}$ 42/[42 + 1] * 100 42/43 * 100 = 97.7% ${\left. c \right)\mspace{14mu}{Specificity}\mspace{14mu}\%} = \frac{\#\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{True}\mspace{14mu}{Negatives}}{{\#\mspace{14mu}{True}\mspace{14mu}{Negatives}} + {\#\mspace{14mu}{False}\mspace{14mu}{Positives}*100}}$ 25/25 + 0 * 100 25/25 * 100 = 100% ${\left. d \right)\mspace{14mu}{Positive}\mspace{14mu}{Predictive}\mspace{14mu}{Value}\mspace{14mu}\%} = \frac{\#\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{True}\mspace{14mu}{Positives}}{\begin{matrix} {{\#\mspace{14mu}{True}\mspace{14mu}{Positives}} +} \\ {\#\mspace{14mu}{False}\mspace{14mu}{Positives}*100} \end{matrix}}$ 42/42 + 0 * 100 42/42 * 100 = 100% ${\left. e \right)\mspace{14mu}{Negative}\mspace{14mu}{Predictive}\mspace{14mu}{Value}\mspace{14mu}\%} = \frac{\#\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{True}\mspace{14mu}{Negatives}}{\begin{matrix} {{\#\mspace{14mu}{True}\mspace{14mu}{Negatives}} +} \\ {\#\mspace{14mu}{False}\mspace{14mu}{Negatives}*100} \end{matrix}}$ 25/25 + 1 * 100 25/26 * 100 = 96.2%

TABLE 11 Allele-Specific PCR Primers Allele-Specific PCR to Detect CA-MRSA SNP CA-MRSA-For-TA CTTTATATTTGGTGTGATTA (SEQ ID NO. 25) CA-MRSA-For-AA CTTTATATTTGGTGTGATAA (SEQ ID NO. 26) CA-MRSA-For-GA CTTTATATTTGGTGTGATGA (SEQ ID NO. 27) CA-MRSA-For-CA CTTTATATTTGGTGTGATCA (SEQ ID NO. 28) CA-MRSA-For-TG CTTTATATTTGGTGTGATTG (SEQ ID NO. 29) CA-MRSA-For-AG CTTTATATTTGGTGTGATAG (SEQ ID NO. 30) CA-MRSA-For-GG CTTTATATTTGGTGTGATGG (SEQ ID NO. 31) CA-MRSA-For-CG CTTTATATTTGGTGTGATCG (SEQ ID NO. 32) CA-MRSA-Rev-1 GATTGTGTTGTTTTTCGACC (SEQ ID NO. 33) CA-MRSA-Rev-2 ATAACTTTTCAGCCGTATCC (SEQ ID NO. 34) CA-MRSA-Rev-3 TCCATCTGCTAACATAGC (SEQ ID NO. 35) CA-MRSA-Rev-4 GATTTTCCGATTTTCGATAAC (SEQ ID NO. 36)

TABLE 12 Allele-Specific PCR to Detect G88A SNP Master Mix Quanta Perfecta SuperMix for iQ 12.5 μl ddH₂O  9.0 ul SEQ ID 26 (50 μM)*  0.5 μl SEQ ID 36 (50 μM)  0.5 μl DNA (4 ng/μl)  2.5 μl Total   25 μl CA-MRSA specific. *For HA-MRSA & MSSA control use SEQ ID 30 Thermal Profile Step Temp Time 1 95° C.  3 min 2 95° C. 30 sec 3 54° C. 30 sec 4 72° C. 30 sec 5 72° C.  5 min 6  4° C. hold *repeat steps 2-4 for 35 cycles

TABLE 13 Determination of Optimal Primer Pairs for Allele-Specific PCR Forward Non-CA Reverse Primer (SEQ S. Primer ID #) CA-MRSA aureus (SEQ ID #) Notes TA (25) + − R1 (33) *variable + + R2 (34) + + R3 (35) + + R4 (36) AA (26) + − R1 (33) + − R2 (34) + − R3 (35) + − R4 (36) *brightest amplification CA (28) + − R1 (33) + − R2 (34) + − R3 (35) + − R4 (36) GA (27) + − R1 (33) + − R2 (34) + − R3 (35) + − R4 (36) TG (29) + + R1 (33) + + R2 (34) + + R3 (35) + + R4 (36) AG (30) − + R1 (33) − + R2 (34) − + R3 (35) − + R4 (36) *brightest amplification CG (32) +/− + R1 (33) +/− + R2 (34) *may need further optimization +/− + R3 (35) +/− + R4 (36) GG (31) − + R1 (33) − + R2 (34) − + R3 (35) − + R4 (36) “+” = amplification; “−” = no amplification; “+/−” = variable 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of detecting the presence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) in a human, comprising the steps of: a) obtaining a biological sample from a human; b) isolating genomic material from said biological sample; c) detecting the presence of a SNP in said genomic material selected from the group consisting of G88A and G2047A present in the penicillin binding protein 3 gene, wherein the detection of said SNP is indicative of the presence of CA-MRSA in said biological sample in said human and, d) said detecting step is performed by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), wherein said PCR is selected from one of the following a real-time PCR, a PCR followed by sequencing, a PCR followed by pyrosequencing or an allele-specific PCR, and e) said PCR is performed using a primer set that comprises SEQ ID 5 and SEQ ID
 6. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said SNP is G88A.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said SNP is G2047A.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein said biological sample is whole blood, plasma, urine, or exudate from an infected site.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein said isolating step is performed using guanidinium hydrochloride. 